Current Foot Strength Research

Updated January 2026

Minimalist school shoes improve intrinsic foot muscle size, strength, and arch integrity among primary school students

Citation: Fong Yan et al. (2024). Journal of Sports Sciences.

Summary: This study investigated the impact of using “true” minimalist footwear as regular school shoes over two terms. The results demonstrated a significant increase in the cross-sectional area of the abductor hallucis and flexor digitorum brevis, alongside measurable improvements in hallux strength and medial longitudinal arch integrity.

Key Takeaway: For developing feet, replacing structured school shoes with minimalist options acts as a passive, daily strengthening intervention that effectively bolsters the foot’s “core” and arch stability.

Effects of intrinsic foot muscle training combined with lower extremity resistance training on postural stability in older adults

Citation: Lai, Zhong, et al. (2025). BMC Geriatrics.

Summary: Researchers conducted a randomized controlled trial comparing standard resistance training to a protocol that added “Short Foot” exercises. The combination group showed superior improvements in equilibrium, strategy scores for balance, and muscle morphology, directly correlating IFM strength with a reduced risk of falls in the elderly.

Key Takeaway: Patients over 60 should incorporate the “short foot” exercise into their general lower-body routines to significantly enhance proprioception and dynamic stability.

Effects of a forefoot strengthening protocol on explosive tasks performance and propulsion kinetics in athletes

Citation: Tourillon et al. (2025). PLOS One.

Summary: This 8-week study utilized a periodized, high-load forefoot strengthening protocol to increase metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPj) flexion torque. The increased strength translated directly into better performance in horizontal jumping and cutting maneuvers due to improved ground reaction force transmission.

Key Takeaway: Athletes looking to improve “first-step” quickness and agility should focus on high-load toe-flexion exercises, as a stronger forefoot acts as a more efficient lever during explosive propulsion.

The effects of minimalist footwear on stability, change of direction, and power production: a randomized crossover trial

Citation: Allen et al. (2025). Current Issues in Sport Science (CISS).

Summary: Testing lacrosse athletes, this research found that wearing minimalist footwear acutely improved stability and vertical jump peak force compared to regular athletic shoes. The study suggests that the lack of cushioning provides better proprioceptive feedback and reduces force-transfer time into the ground.

Key Takeaway: Transitioning to minimalist shoes can offer immediate gains in balance and power production by removing the “muffling” effect of traditional midsole cushioning.

The effects of foot core exercises and minimalist footwear on foot muscle sizes, foot strength, and biomechanics: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Citation: Peters-Dickie, J. L., et al. (2024). Clinical Biomechanics.

Summary: This major 2024 review analyzed data from 28 different trials involving over 1,300 participants. The study confirmed that while both strategies work, they target different areas: minimalist shoes were particularly effective at increasing toe strength (digits 2-5), while specific foot exercises were superior for controlling arch motion during running.

Key Takeaway: For the best results, combine both approaches: use minimalist shoes to strengthen your toes and performing specific exercises to stabilize your arch.

Differential effects of intrinsic- versus extrinsic-first corrective exercise programs in pediatric flatfoot

Citation: Ketabchi, J., et al. (2024). Scientific Reports.

Summary: This study compared two rehabilitation protocols: one that started with big leg muscles (extrinsic) and one that started with deep foot muscles (intrinsic). The researchers found that initiating the program with intrinsic foot muscle exercises first was significantly more effective at improving foot structure and reducing navicular drop (arch collapse).

Key Takeaway: When starting a foot strengthening program, focus on the small, deep “core” muscles of the foot before moving on to heavy calf or leg strengthening.

Effects of Intrinsic Foot Muscle Training in Improving Stability

Citation: García-García, D., et al. (2024). Applied Sciences.

Summary: This clinical trial investigated the impact of an 8-week intrinsic foot muscle training program on patients with significant stability deficits. The intervention group showed statistically significant improvements in dynamic stability and self-perceived confidence in balance compared to the control group.

Key Takeaway: Strengthening the foot core is a critical pathway for improving whole-body balance and preventing falls, regardless of your starting fitness level.

Foot strength and stiffness are related to footwear use in a comparison of minimally- vs. conventionally-shod populations

Citation: Holowka, N. B., Wallace, I. J., & Lieberman, D. E. (2018). Scientific Reports.

Summary: This study compares the foot mechanics of conventionally-shod Americans against the minimally-shod Tarahumara people of Mexico. The findings reveal that habitual use of conventional modern shoes is associated with weaker intrinsic foot muscles and reduced arch stiffness compared to those who wear minimal sandals. This suggests that restrictive footwear may lead to muscle weakness and potential flat foot conditions over time.

Key Takeaway: Wearing shoes that mimic being barefoot (minimal support) helps maintain natural foot stiffness and muscle size, which may protect against collapsing arches.

Walking in Minimalist Shoes Is Effective for Strengthening Foot Muscles

Citation: Ridge, S. T., et al. (2019). Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.

Summary: Researchers conducted an eight-week study comparing two groups: one that performed specific foot strengthening exercises and one that simply walked in minimalist shoes. The study found that walking in minimalist footwear was just as effective as a dedicated exercise regimen for increasing intrinsic foot muscle size and strength. Both groups saw significant improvements compared to a control group that wore standard shoes.

Key Takeaway: You can effectively strengthen your feet by gradually transitioning to minimalist shoes for your daily walking, eliminating the need for complex gym routines.

Daily activity in minimal footwear increases foot strength

Citation: Curtis, R., Willems, C., Paoletti, P., & D’Août, K. (2021). Scientific Reports.

Summary: This six-month study followed participants who transitioned to wearing minimal footwear for their standard daily activities. The results showed a significant increase in toe flexion strength by an average of 57.4%, suggesting that the lack of support in minimal shoes forces the foot muscles to work harder. The study confirmed that regular, low-intensity daily activity is sufficient to induce significant strength gains.

Key Takeaway: Simply wearing minimal footwear for everyday activities (like shopping or working) can increase your foot strength by nearly 60% over six months.

Strength Training for the Intrinsic Flexor Muscles of the Foot

Citation: Hashimoto, T., & Sakuraba, K. (2014). Journal of Physical Therapy Science.

Summary: This study analyzed the impact of an eight-week resistance training program specifically focused on toe flexion exercises (towel curls/gripping against resistance). The training significantly improved intrinsic foot flexor strength and helped lift the longitudinal arch of the foot. Additionally, participants saw measurable improvements in athletic performance, including vertical jump height and sprinting speed.

Key Takeaway: Dedicated toe-gripping exercises can not only strengthen your feet and improve your arch shape but also enhance your overall athletic agility and power.

The impact of intrinsic foot muscle strengthening exercises in asymptomatic athletes with normal foot structure: A systematic review

Citation: Ahmed, M., et al. (2024). Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health.

Summary: This systematic review evaluated multiple clinical trials to determine the efficacy of intrinsic foot muscle (IFM) exercises for athletes without foot deformities. [cite_start]The study concluded that these exercises effectively improve foot strength, morphology (structure), and running mechanics[cite: 33]. [cite_start]The “short foot exercise” was identified as the most commonly utilized and effective intervention for targeting these muscles[cite: 240].

Key Takeaway: Implementing a routine of intrinsic foot exercises, particularly the “short foot” maneuver, is a scientifically backed method to enhance foot function and athletic performance[cite: 33, 241].

Intrinsic Foot Muscle Activation During Specific Exercises: A T2 Time Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study

Citation: Gooding, T. M., Feger, M. A., Hart, J. M., & Hertel, J. (2016). Journal of Athletic Training.

Summary: Using advanced MRI technology, researchers measured the exact activation levels of deep foot muscles during four specific exercises. [cite_start]They found that the short-foot exercise, toes-spread-out exercise, and toe extension exercises all successfully activated the intrinsic plantar foot muscles, with activation increases ranging from roughly 9% to 35%[cite: 430, 432]. This confirms that these specific movements are not just theoretical but physically engage the deep core muscles of the foot.

Key Takeaway: You can effectively target and activate your deep foot muscles by performing four specific movements: the short-foot exercise, spreading your toes, and extending your toes[cite: 436].

The Influence of Plantar Short Foot Muscle Exercises on the Lower Extremity Muscle Strength and Power

Citation: Sulowska, I., Mika, A., Oleksy, Ł., & Stolarczyk, A. (2019). BioMed Research International.

Summary: This study tracked long-distance runners who performed daily short foot muscle exercises for six weeks. [cite_start]The results showed that strengthening the feet did not just improve foot function; it significantly increased strength and power in the knee flexors (hamstrings) and improved sprint times[cite: 1897, 1901]. [cite_start]This suggests that energy transfer and strength in the upper legs are directly influenced by the strength of the feet[cite: 1902].

Key Takeaway: Dedicating time to foot strengthening exercises can have a “chain reaction” benefit, improving strength up your legs and enhancing your overall running power[cite: 2235].